HINE 109: Midterm Essay

One factor in Ottoman state formation that marked a shift from previous empires was the negotiation and accommodation with foreigners to acquire new territory, mainly by adding vassals to its ranks and tolerating many religious sects. Before the Ottomans, the Mongol Empire’s rapid expansion was not reinforced by establishing control and security in newly acquired territories, as they could not man and settle these regions, leaving them at best weakly controlled. The Ottomans made sure not to repeat the same mistake, relying on local government and support. As we discussed in lecture, they successfully gained these regions' support by incorporating people ravaged by warring states and constant conflict, thereby reducing the risk of revolt and maintaining a stable home front (Lecture 3-1, “Muslim vs. Non-Muslim”). As a regime expands, one of the most significant challenges of commanding authority is keeping different groups in check, including those in power, since success can only be achieved with their assistance. During the period, Christian kingdoms in the West attempted multiple crusades to take the holy lands near Jerusalem. As these alien sovereigns seized territory, they often forced locals to convert to an alternative religion, sparking resentment and later revolts. In contrast, the Ottomans were open to various ethnic backgrounds and faiths. As Karen Barkey writes in her work on the subject, “Rather than attempt to impose new or uniform forms of rule, they built on and took advantage of systems already in place. The Ottomans were institutionally omnivorous” (Barkey, Empire of Difference, p.70). This receptiveness to new ideas also allowed them to succeed militarily, adopting gunpowder weaponry and improved maritime technologies from their Western opponents to better suit combat. By adopting an open-minded approach to expansion, religion, and technology, the Ottomans created a synthesis of diverse cultures, beliefs, and legal codes. In turn, they secured backing in many of these regions.

This policy of broad tolerance coincides with the Ottoman approach to negotiating with local lords. Where they could, the Ottomans were eager to accept alliances with powerful families in the region, particularly in the earliest years of development. Many lords, under the pressure of losing status to Ottoman assault, were willing to accept foreign suzerainty in exchange for maintaining their position (Lecture 2-2, “Vassals”). In this system, local rulers were primarily autonomous, regulating their own taxation and governance, so the Ottomans did not have to worry about establishing their own government there. However, they were not so naive as to allow these rulers to return as a threat to their dynasty. As Barkey describes, “[Ottomans] eliminated elites potentially hostile to change, and rewarded groups with the fewest prospects and the most to gain from promotion and integration, therefore ensuring their loyalty” (Barkey, Empire of Difference, p.75). By combining these efforts, the Ottomans either allied with local powers or removed them, consolidating additional territory within their homelands in Anatolia and the Balkans. This form of diplomacy, however, was not always successful. Mainly, lords would pledge allegiance to whoever best supported them and their interests, leading to fluctuating agreements. An example was during the Ottoman conquest of the Timurid region in the east. After losing their lands following their failure to swear suzerainty, eastern Anatolian forces called on Timur and the Timurids for aid. They replied by beating the Ottomans back and capturing Sultan Bayezid I in the battle. Overall, the Ottomans welcomed alliances whenever possible, and their vast network allowed them to recover from consequential defeats.

Islam influenced many decisions regarding internal and external policy in the Ottoman Empire, specifically in justifying conquest and cultivating a state-supported version of the faith to ward off foreign influence. Early Ottoman maturation revolved around the western front, where conflicts with the Byzantines and other Christian nations were waged. These conflicts were easy to explain, as a weakening empire that followed a separate church was a likely target. However, other Muslim nations required more reasoning. As Palmira Brummett explains in her text, “Attacks on Muslim competitors were legitimized by means of a fatwa and by accusations of 'heresy' against the designated enemy. Forays against Christian competitors were justified as jihad or war against the infidel” (Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy, p.7). Most Islamic people would not condone attacks on fellow Muslims, forcing Ottoman sultans to claim their actions were God’s will and those who stood in defiance were traitors. Religion as a guiding force in conduct was explicitly evident in dealings with the Safavids and their Shia dynasty. In his letter to the opposing power, Sultan Selim I declared they had strayed from their course and that it was an “obligation” for Muslims to defy the actions of a nation that denied divine law (Lecture 3-2, “Selim I’s letter to Shah Ismail). As with Christian and Catholic conflicts in Europe, the Ottomans set a precedent for rivalry between branches of one faith, ending any notion of religious accord. They would continue to use faith-driven justification as their lands grew.

Yet, once expansion slowed, the Ottomans sought more unified control over their regions and enforced a specific madhhab, or school of Islam: the Hanafi. The reason for such a drastic change from their previously tolerant policies on religion stemmed from foreign pressure and internal disputes, both of which could be addressed with a singular religious doctrine incorporating a legal code. The Sharia, or Islamic sacred legal code, was initially used only in the empire's central regions, but the Ottomans hoped to apply it throughout the empire. In describing the installation of this system, Riza Yıldırı explains, “First, they declared the Hanafi madhhab to be the official law of the state, made its application compulsory in the core provinces of Anatolia and the Balkans, and deemed it superior to the other madhhabs in the Arab provinces … they developed a central administrative system that tightly controlled practitioners and interpreters of the law, that is, qadis and muftis” (Yıldırım, The Rise of the Religion and State Order, pp.24-25). The Ottomans ensured that the people of their lands would comply with the new practice by dictating who could pass judgment and interpret legal mandates and codes in line with religious ideals. In some cases, traditional and religious laws would contrast, and there would even be discrepancies between religious law in various schools of Islam or regions of the country. An example of this was the Devshirme system of military recruitment, which placed a particular division of soldiers under different laws and restrictions while serving the Sultan. Their shift towards one unified religion also signaled an increased reliance on religious law. Accordingly, consolidating legal codes into a single system enabled fair and equal enforcement of the law across the country, a task that was difficult for many other dynasties of the time (e.g., China). This push for religious and legal unification was also a defense of the homeland against the spread of foreign ideas and the instillation of hostility towards the ruling Ottoman house, mainly from the Safavids. As we discussed in the lecture, the Shi’itization of the Safavid empire was a direct threat to the Ottomans and their Sunnism. Thus, to prevent pockets of rebels from forming in the nation, the Ottomans were quick to enforce anti-Shia policies and declared them heretics (Lecture 5-1, “Sources of Sunnitization”). The Ottomans used their reputation as a strong Islamic state to push back against the Safavid interpretation of the doctrine, setting the stage for future conflict with the Eastern power. From faith-based assaults on bordering territories to a centralized school of religion and law, Islam is seen in many of the key decisions that bolstered the Ottoman Empire.